Toolbox I: Indicator, Index and Metrics of Urban Health Variables

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For a more interactive and comprehensive exploration, refer to this page. There, you will find databases enriched with various visual components including gallery views, table layouts, and boards, facilitating an enhanced understanding of the information presented.

Name	Category	Dimension	Description	Data	Indicator/Index/Metrics	Note	Ref
Access to healthcare	Health determinants	Physical Env.	Ratio of Healthcare Facilities to the Population within an area	Infrastructure data	$\text{Population-to-Facility Ratio} = \frac{\text{Total Population in Geographical Area}}{\text{Total Number of Healthcare Facilities in the Area}}$ This can additionally be normalised across all areas for relatively easier comparison by utilising the following: $\text{Score} = \frac{{\text{Population-to-Facility Ratio} - \text{Minimum Population-to-Facility Ratio}}}{\text{Range}} \times 100$ , where score is the normalised score out of 100, Population-to-Facility Ratio is the original Ratio of the area, Minimum Population-to-Facility Ratio is the lowest ratio observed in the dataset across all areas, and range is the difference between the highest and lowest ratios in the dataset.
Bikeability	Health determinants	Physical Env.	Density of cycling routes, including dedicated bike lanes, shared paths, and bike-friendly streets.	Road vector data	$\text{Cycling Route Density} = \frac{\text{Total Length of Cycling Routes}}{\text{Area of Analysis}}$
Land use diversity	Health determinants	Physical Env.	h-index based on land use	Land use data	$H' = - \sum_{i=1}^{n} (p_i \cdot \log_2(p_i))$ where $H'$ represents the diversity index $n$ is the number of land use categories $p_i$ is the proportion of land area occupied by the $i$ th category	Mixed use has been conceptualized as a key ingredient needed to support walking and recent studies suggest mixed use is important in maintaining healthy weight as well.	Land use, transport, and population health: estimating the health benefits of compact cities - The Lancet City planning and population health: a global challenge - The Lancet
Exposure to rail noise	Health determinants	Physical Env.	Annual average noise levels for the 16-hour period between 0700 – 2300	Sensors	A receptor height of 4m above ground, suggested noise level classification for rail noise: 75.0+dB, 70.0-74.9dB, 65.0-69.9dB, 60.0-64.9dB, 55.0-59.9dB, <54.9dB		Strategic noise mapping (2017) - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk)
Flooding Risk	Health determinants	Physical Env.	Probability of flooding occurring in a given area.	Remote sensing data	Uses local water level and flood defence data to model flood risk across different flood likelihoods. • High: each year, there is a chance of flooding of greater than 1 in 30 (3.3%). • Medium: each year, there is a chance of flooding of between 1 in 30 (3.3%) and 1 in 100 (1%). • Low: each year, there is a chance of flooding of between 1 in 100 (1%) and 1 in 1000 (0.1%). • Very Low: each year, there is a chance of flooding of less than 1 in 1000 (0.1%).	The classes are categorical. The effects of flooding on health are extensive and significant, ranging from mortality and injuries resulting from trauma and drowning to infectious diseases and mental health problems.	Flooding and health: an overview - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk)
Exposure to roads noise	Health determinants	Physical Env.	Noise along major traffic routes	Sensors	-		Strategic noise mapping (2017) - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk)
Access to public open space	Health determinants	Physical Env.	Percentage of residential households within a area, with access to at least one open space by specified type of space	Green space data	Area-based accessibility: $\text{Percentage} = \frac{\text{Number of Residential Households with Access to Specified Open Space}}{\text{Total Number of Residential Households in the Area}} \times 100$ Buffer-based accessibility:	Buffers of different categories of opensace: Regional Parks = 5km max Metropolitan Parks = 2.4km max District = 1.2km max	Access to Public Open Space and Nature by Ward - London Datastore
Air quality (PM10/PM2.5)	Health determinants	Physical Env.	Annual mean µg/m3 (microgramme per cubic metre) for particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of less than or equal to 10 micrometres (PM10) or 2.5 micrometres (PM2.5)	Remote sensing data	$\text{Annual mean PM}_{10} (\mu g/m^3) = \frac{\sum_{i=1}^{n} \text{PM}_{10_i}}{n}$ $\text{Annual mean PM}_{2.5} (\mu g/m^3) = \frac{\sum_{i=1}^{n} \text{PM}_{2.5_i}}{n}$	The annual PM2.5 guideline level recommended by the WHO is 5 µg/m³. The annual interim targets for PM2.5 start at 35 µg/m³ (target 1) and decrease to 25, 15, and 10 µg/m³ for targets 2, 3, and 4, respectively. The annual PM10 guideline level recommended by the WHO is 15 µg/m³. The annual interim targets for PM10 start at 70 µg/m³ (target 1) and decrease to 50, 30, and 20 µg/m³ for targets 2, 3, and 4, respectively.	WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (‎PM2.5 and PM10)‎, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide
Walkability	Health determinants	Physical Env.	Walkability involves assessing how friendly an area is to walking, which can depend on a variety of factors including the presence and quality of pedestrian pathways, safety, accessibility to services and amenities, and the overall environment.		$\text { Walkability Index }=w_1 \cdot F_1+w_2 \cdot F_2+\ldots+w_n \cdot F_n$ where $F1,F2,...,Fn$ are factors contributing to walkability. These could be distance to amenities, walkable routes density, population density, block length, traffic data and so on.
Greenery/NDVI	Health determinants	Physical Env.	Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)	Remote sensing data	$\text{NDVI} = \frac{\text{NIR} - \text{Red}}{\text{NIR} + \text{Red}}$ where: $\text{NIR}$ represents the spectral reflectance or radiance value in the near-infrared band, and $\text{Red}$ represents the spectral reflectance or radiance value in the red band.	The NDVI value ranges from -1 to 1, where higher values indicate denser and healthier vegetation.	Landsat Normalized Difference Vegetation Index \| U.S. Geological Survey (usgs.gov)
Air quality (NO2)	Health determinants	Physical Env.	Annual mean µg/m3 (microgramme per cubic metre) for particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of less than or equal to 2.5 micrometres (PM2.5)	Remote sensing data	$\text{Annual mean NO}_{2} (\mu g/m^3) = \frac{\sum_{i=1}^{n} \text{NO}_{2_i}}{n}$	The annual NO2 guideline level recommended by the WHO is 5 µg/m³. There are three interim targets for annual averages: 40, 30, and 20 µg/m³ for targets 1, 2, and 3, respectively.	WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (‎PM2.5 and PM10)‎, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide
Summer heat spots	Health determinants	Physical Env.	Average Local Solar Time (LST) in summer daytime.	Remote sensing data	$\text{Average LST} = \frac{1}{N} \sum_{i=1}^{N} \left(\text{Sunrise Time}_i + \frac{\text{Day Length}_i}{2}\right)$ $Average LST$ represents the average Local Solar Time. $N$ is the number of days in the summer daytime period. Sunrise Time $i$ represents the sunrise time for the $i$ day. Day Length $i$ represents the duration of daylight for the $i$ th day.	Higher temperatures can cause increased mortality, reduced productivity and damage to infrastructure. The most vulnerable members of the population, such as the elderly and infants, will be most severely affected.	Major Summer Heat Spots using Landsat-8 Thermal Satellite data - London Datastore
Population density map	Health determinants	Soco-economic Env.	People per square kilometer	Census	$\text{Population Density} = \frac{\text{Total Population}}{\text{Area}}$
Crime rates	Health determinants	Soco-economic Env.	This formula gives the number of crimes per unit of population within a given time frame (normally last 24 months)	Police records	$\text{Crime Rate} = \frac{\text{Number of crimes}}{\text{Population}} \times 1000$
Deprived communities	Health determinants	Soco-economic Env.	Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) Decile	Census
Gender ratio	Health determinants	Soco-economic Env.	Male to female ratio	Census	$\text{Male to Female ratio} = \frac{\text{Number of Males}}{\text{Number of Females}}$
Aging population ratio	Health determinants	Soco-economic Env.	Proportion of people over 65 among all population	Census	$\text{Proportion} = \frac{\text{Number of people over 65}}{\text{Total population}} \times 100$
Walked distance	Health determinants	Health Behaviour	Distance walked per hex area per day	Survey	$\text{Distance walked per hex area per day} = \frac{\text{Total distance walked}}{\text{Total hex area}}$	Walking and cycling have economic, social, environmental and health benefits.	Walking and cycling: latest evidence to support policy-making and practice (who.int)
Ratio of active people	Health determinants	Health Behaviour	Proportion of active people (more than 30 mins exercise a week). These activities include sport; recreational walking and cycling; walking and cycling as active travel; dance and gardening.	Survey	$\text{Proportion of Active People} = \frac{N_{Fairly Active} + N_{Very Active}}{\text{Total Population}} \times 100$
Cycling flows	Health determinants	Health Behaviour	The average number of cyclists per unit of time, such as per hour or per day	Sensors	$\text{Cycling Flows} = \frac{\text{Number of Cyclists}}{\text{Time Period}}$	Walking and cycling have economic, social, environmental and health benefits. Cycling, in particular, is an effective way to burn calories, engage and strengthen muscles more comprehensively, and can lower the long-term risk of mortality from natural causes.	Walking and cycling: latest evidence to support policy-making and practice (who.int)
Emotions	Health determinants	Perception			See details in Emotion Detection
Life Expectancy at birth	Health outcomes	Physical Health	The average number of years that a newborn could expect to live	Health records	$e_0=\sum_{x=0}^{\infty} l_x$ $e_0$ is the life expectancy at birth. $l_x$ represents the number of people alive at age $x$ . This is derived from the life table, which starts with a hypothetical cohort (often 100,000) at birth and subtracts the number of deaths observed in each age group to calculate the number of survivors.	Life expectancy at birth reflects the overall mortality level of a population. Life expectancy at birth is defined as how long, on average, a newborn can expect to live, if current death rates do not change.	What does "life expectancy at birth" really mean? (worldbank.org)
Prevalence of diabetes diseases	Health outcomes	Physical Health	Mean prevelence of obesity	Health records	$\text{Prev} = \left(\frac{\text{Diagnosed}}{\text{Total}}\right) \times 100$
Prevalence of cardiovascular diseases rates	Health outcomes	Physical Health	The proportion of patients aged 18 or over with the diagnosis of cardiovascular diseases	Health records	$\text{Prev} = \left(\frac{\text{Diagnosed}}{\text{Total}}\right) \times 100$
Obesity rate	Health outcomes	Physical Health	The proportion of individuals aged 18 or over with the diagnosis of obesity	Health records	$\text{Obesity Rate} = \left(\frac{\text{Obese}}{\text{Total}}\right) \times 100$	Obesity can negatively impact physical and mental well-being. Individuals with obesity may experience reduced mobility, increased fatigue, decreased quality of life, and a higher risk of mental health issues such as depression and anxiety.
Mortality rate	Health outcomes	Mental and Wellbeing	Mortality rate is typically expressed in units of deaths per 1,000 individuals per year	Health records	$\text{Mortality Rate} = \frac{\text{Number of deaths}}{\text{Total population}} \times 1000$
Prevalence rates of depression	Health outcomes	Mental and Wellbeing	The proportion of individuals diagnosed with depression	Health records	$\text{Prev} = \left(\frac{\text{Diagnosed}}{\text{Total}}\right) \times 100$	Depression can, in turn, lead to more stress and dysfunction and worsen the affected person’s life situation and the depression itself. Depression is closely related to and affected by physical health. Many of the factors that influence depression (such as physical inactivity or harmful use of alcohol) are also known risk factors for diseases such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes and respiratory diseases.	Depressive disorder (depression) (who.int)
Prevalence of dementia	Health outcomes	Mental and Wellbeing	The proportion of individuals diagnosed with dementia	Health records	$\text{Prevalence} = \left(\frac{\text{Number of individuals diagnosed}}{\text{Total population}}\right) \times 100$	Dementia is a term for several diseases that affect memory, thinking, and the ability to perform daily activities. Dementia is one of the major causes of disability and dependency among older people globally.	Dementia (who.int)